The Strategic Role of Syria and Egypt in the Historical Context of the Quds Question

Arwa

Al-Quds is a crucial focal point in the Middle East, particularly in light of recent developments in Gaza. These events have called for the urgent need to approach the Al-Quds issue with historical insights rather than superficial perspectives. The Qur’an has taught us to know that there are valuable lessons from past nations. Thus, this article will examine the strategic importance of Syria and Egypt for the future of Al-Quds, emphasizing their historical roles and the critical positions they will hold moving forward.

Sacred land full of history lessons

Al-Quds occupies a unique position in the history of Islam and humanity. More than just a beautiful geographical location, it serves as the cradle of divine messages, the heart of jihad and struggle, and the centre of prophetic teachings. The spiritual and historical significance of this city resonates deeply within the collective memory of humanity, transcending physical borders. Throughout history, Al-Quds has been a battleground for the conflict between truth and falsehood, experiencing numerous shifts—conquests, liberations, and losses—each leaving invaluable lessons. This rich history not only imparts wisdom but also offers strategic insights for our present and future.

We will now explore six critical phases in the history of Al-Quds, focusing on the military strategies employed and the lessons learned regarding political unity and military planning. These historical insights will enhance our understanding of the present and help us forge a more assured path forward.

Phase One: The First Islamic Conquest (16/637)

The first Islamic conquest of Al-Quds in 16/637, led by Caliph Umar ibn Khattab, marks the dawn of Islamic rule in this sacred city. Its significance, however, extends beyond religious implications; it also reflects the strategic military planning that underpinned this victory.

This conquest was not a random occurrence but rather the result of a series of calculated military decisions. A key step in this strategy was the conquest of Damascus, the political capital of the region. Captured in the fourteenth year of the Hijrah, just 22 months into the Islamic campaign, the fall of Damascus was vital for paving the way to Al-Quds. This approach demonstrates how the Companions understood the importance of securing political centres before advancing on cities of religious significance.

Controlling Damascus meant wielding power over the entire region and facilitating access to strategic routes leading to Al-Quds. Had Al-Quds been conquered first, its protection would have been compromised by ongoing threats from the north, where Byzantine forces still held sway. Thus, the conquest of Damascus is a crucial component of the broader Islamic campaign for Al-Quds.

Phase Two: The First Crusader Invasion or First Loss (492/1099)

In the late fifth century Hijri (late 11th century AD), Al-Quds experienced a critical crisis known as the "First Loss." This period was defined by the city's fall to the Crusaders in 492/1099, a result of deep divisions within the Islamic world. The Ummah was split between the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, allied with the Seljuks, and the Shia Fatimid State in Cairo. This political and sectarian divide led to significant disunity between Egypt and Damascus, severely weakening the Islamic front.

The Crusaders adeptly took advantage of the discord among Muslim factions, exploiting the internal conflicts and fragile alliances among various leaders, particularly the collaboration between the Fatimids and the Crusaders against the Seljuks.

In the midst of this chaos, Pope Urban II recognized the Islamic world's vulnerability and called for the First Crusade in 1095. Crusader armies advanced eastward from Europe, capturing key cities such as Antioch and Tripoli before seizing Al-Quds from the Fatimids, who had recently regained control. On July 15, 1099, after a nearly five-week siege, Crusader forces breached the walls of Al-Quds, resulting in a horrific massacre of its population.

The fall of Al-Quds sent shockwaves throughout the Islamic world, prompting numerous attempts to reclaim the city in the decades that followed. This period witnessed the emergence of prominent leaders such as Imad al-Din Zengī and his son Nureddin, who began to unify the Islamic front against the Crusaders. Their efforts ultimately set the stage for the liberation of Al-Quds by Saladin Ayyubi in 1187.

Phase Three: The First Liberation (583/1187)

The recapture of Al-Quds by Saladin Ayyubi in 583/1187 marks a significant milestone in the city’s history. This decisive victory is closely connected to the earlier strategic and tactical efforts of Nureddin Zengī, who aimed to unify Damascus and its surrounding regions under strong leadership.

Saladin spent two decades building his military strength and consolidating power in Egypt and Damascus, building on the foundation laid by Nureddin Zengī. After Nureddin died in 1174, his successor, al-Malik al-Salih Ismail, encountered internal disputes and power struggles among army commanders, which created an opportunity for Saladin to rise to prominence.

Seizing this moment, Saladin advanced on Damascus, positioning himself as the guardian of Nureddin's legacy and effectively becoming the ruler of the territories that had been unified under Nureddin's command. In 1176, he returned to Egypt, where he received formal authorization from the Abbasid caliph to govern the former emirates. This endorsement not only legitimized Saladin’s authority but also empowered him to unify Egypt and Damascus under his leadership.

This historic moment was vital for Saladin’s ascent and the realization of Nureddin Zengī’s vision to unify the region under strong leadership. It set the stage for Saladin’s remarkable triumph in liberating Al-Quds from the Crusaders and defeating them at the renowned Battle of Hattin in 583/1187. This victory opened the door for the recapture of Al-Quds and the Al-Aqsa Mosque from the Crusaders.

The historical lessons gleaned from the experiences of Saladin and his predecessor, Nureddin Zengī, stress the critical importance of Islamic unity and strategic cooperation among neighbouring countries, such as Damascus and Cairo. This unity, which was essential for the liberation of Al-Quds then, remains crucial today in addressing contemporary challenges and reclaiming the rights of the Palestinian people.

Phase Four: The Second Period of Loss (624-641/1227-1244)

In the wake of Saladin Ayyubi’s death, the Ayyubid State fell into significant internal strife, becoming fragmented as it was divided among his sons and relatives. This division stemmed from an agreement Saladin made before his passing to prevent internal conflicts; however, it ultimately weakened the state and led to the emergence of several emirates under the control of various family members. As a result, the united Islamic front that had been established under Saladin’s leadership began to crumble.

As the Ayyubid State declined, the Crusades against the region . The Fifth and Sixth Crusades highlighted the intricate geopolitical dynamics of the area. Importantly, the Fifth Crusade redirected its efforts from Al-Quds to Egypt, acknowledging the latter's strategic importance for controlling the Holy Land. The Crusaders initially targeted Dimyat but encountered fierce resistance from Ayyubid forces in Egypt, led by Malik al-Qamil, one of Saladin's sons.

During this campaign, an unexpected alliance formed between Ayyubid Malik al-Kamil and German Emperor Friedrich II. Al-Kamil proposed to surrender Al-Quds in exchange for the withdrawal of Crusaders from Egypt. His willingness to relinquish Al-Quds to secure Egypt shows a shift in strategic priorities, likely reflecting his recognition of Egypt’s critical role as a regional power base.

The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229), led by Friedrich II, distinguished itself from its predecessors by avoiding major military confrontations. Instead, the emperor relied heavily on diplomacy to achieve his objectives. Negotiations with Sultan al-Kamil Ayyubi culminated in a peace treaty signed in 1229, which resulted in the surrender of Al-Quds and several other cities to the Crusaders without a fight.

Both campaigns significantly reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the region. The Ayyubids maintained control over Egypt and Damascus, while Europe regained portions of the Holy Land without securing a decisive victory. Meanwhile, the balance of power began to tilt in favour of the Mamluks, who would later emerge as key players.

Phase Five: The Second Liberation by Najm al-Din Ayyub

This important chapter in Al-Quds's Islamic history marked a dramatic shift in the balance of power, largely due to the remarkable efforts of Sultan Najm al-Din Ayyub. Following a period of division and vulnerability after Saladin Ayyubi's death, Najm al-Din emerged as a formidable leader who successfully united the ranks and rekindled the spirit of resistance against the Crusader presence in the region.

In 1240, Najm al-Din began his journey by consolidating power in Egypt. Drawing on his political and military acumen, he strengthened the Ayyubid State. Recognizing the importance of strategic alliances, he enlisted Khwarazmian soldiers seeking refuge after their state had been decimated by the Mongols. This astute decision bolstered his forces with a formidable military contingent, providing significant momentum for his campaign.

Najm al-Din capitalized on the conflicts between local factions and the Crusaders, navigating the complicated regional landscape to his advantage. When the Crusaders violated prior agreements and provoked outrage—particularly by desecrating sites like the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock—Najm al-Din harnessed this public anger to galvanize support for his liberation efforts.

Najm al-Din led a formidable alliance of Egyptian and Khwarezmian forces, achieving a decisive victory over the Crusaders and their local allies in a critical battle near Gaza in 1244. This battle marked a turning point that paved the way for the recapture of Al-Quds.

Islamic forces entered the city under the command of the Khwarezmians. In contrast to Saladin’s policy of tolerance, this liberation was marked by a harsher response toward the Crusaders within Al-Quds. Nonetheless, the recapture of the city was a monumental achievement, restoring Muslim control over this sacred site.

Following this victory, Najm al-Din successfully consolidated Islamic rule in Al-Quds and its surrounding areas, revitalizing the glory of the Ayyubid State. The implications of this triumph reverberated throughout the Islamic world, eliciting strong reactions in Europe and prompting calls for a new Crusade.

Thanks to Najm al-Din's astute leadership, his ability to unite disparate factions, and his keen sense of strategic opportunity, he accomplished what his predecessors had struggled to achieve for years. The liberation of Al-Quds represented the culmination of the Ayyubid State's efforts to rebuild its power and reaffirmed the vital importance of Islamic unity in the face of external threats.

Phase Six: The Third and Current Period of Loss (1336-1917)

This phase marks a painful and decisive turning point in the history of Al-Quds, culminating in the city’s final loss under British occupation during World War I. Before this era, Al-Quds enjoyed relative security within a broader political union that included Egypt and Damascus.

Under Mamluk and Ottoman rule, Egypt and Damascus functioned as a united state, providing Al-Quds with centuries of protection and stability. As long as this political unity persisted, few dared to threaten the security of the holy city.

However, the British invasion of Egypt shattered this protective alliance, leading to the city’s vulnerability. The British capitalized on the resulting political fragmentation, occupying Al-Quds with the assistance of certain local factions willing to cooperate.

In this context, Theodor Herzl's memoirs serve as a valuable source of insight into the diplomatic and legal strategies he employed to establish a national home for Jews in Palestine. These memoirs detail the intensive and intricate diplomatic efforts that involved the major powers of the time—Istanbul, London, Rome, St. Petersburg, and Berlin.

It is noteworthy that Herzl attached great importance to obtaining official approval, especially from the Ottoman Empire, before attempting to establish any Jewish presence in Palestine. This attitude reflects a deep strategic understanding of the importance of legal legitimacy in achieving long-term political goals. Herzl strongly rejected the idea of illegal infiltration of Jews into Palestine and was aware that such an approach could lead to serious consequences.

Herzl's position can be explained by several strategic considerations. Firstly, illegal immigration would deter potential immigrants because of the great risks it entailed. Secondly, illegal settlers would be at risk of deportation or persecution by the Ottoman authorities and the local population. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, Herzl was aware that an internationally recognised legal presence would provide a solid basis for claiming political rights and international protection in the future.

Herzl's strategy aimed to establish a legitimate Jewish presence in Palestine as a first step towards gradual autonomy. This gradual approach aimed at establishing a recognised legal entity and then gradually building institutions and structures of self-government, avoiding direct conflict with existing authorities.

Analysing Herzl's strategy provides valuable insights into the significance of international diplomacy and the importance of legal legitimacy in advancing long-term political projects. It also highlights the effectiveness of an incremental approach in achieving complex political objectives.

Historical analysis shows that periods of power and security for Al-Quds were closely linked to the unity of Egypt and Damascus, whether under Mamluk or Ottoman rule. This unity acted as a protective shield for Al-Quds for centuries. The eventual loss of the city in the modern era stemmed from the separation of Egypt from the Ottoman Empire under British occupation, which set the stage for the subsequent occupation of Al-Quds.

From a strategic perspective, the continuity of governance systems in Syria and Egypt reflects a complex regional landscape. These countries are viewed differently regarding the security of Israel and the broader region, which complicates genuine cooperation among them. This fragmentation weakens their ability to adopt a unified stance on critical issues, such as the status of Al-Quds. Additionally, it raises questions about the nature of regional and international relations that favour Israel and their implications for normalizing ties with authoritarian regimes in the region.