Peace treaties play a pivotal role in shaping the social, political, and cultural narratives of Islamic history. From the earliest days of Islamic propagation in the Arabian Peninsula to the expansive empires that spanned continents, Muslim leaders and communities have engaged in diplomacy to foster peace, resolve conflicts, and promote peaceful coexistence. This gesture is deeply rooted in Quranic advice, “..and if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also]...” (Surah Al-Anfaal, 8 verse 61) and also conforms to the teachings of the Prophet, under whose tutelage the foundation for peace accords was laid. These treaties reflect a pragmatic approach to governance and inter-religious relations based on Islamic principles of justice, fairness, and mutual understanding. Transversing different ages and boundaries, these treaties encapsulate Islamic diplomatic traditions' adaptability and enduring relevance.
The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE)
One of Islamic history's earliest and arguably most significant peace treaties is the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. The treaty, signed between the Prophet and the Quraysh tribe of Mecca in 628 CE near the village of Hudaybiyyah, marked a turning point in early Islamic history. The Prophet and his followers, seeking to perform the pilgrimage, were barred from entering Mecca. Rather than resorting to conflict, the Prophet opted for diplomacy, resulting in a ten-year truce, which later translated to clear and unimpeded victory for the Prophet and the entire Muslim community.
The treaty accentuated a cessation of hostilities, the right of Muslims to perform pilgrimage the following year, and a clause allowing tribes to ally with either side. Initially perceived as a concession by some Muslims—due to terms that seemed to favour the Quraysh—the treaty proved strategic. It provided the emerging Muslim community time to consolidate, spread Islam peacefully, and ultimately paved the way for the conquest of Mecca two years later when the Quraysh violated the agreement. The treaty demonstrates the Islamic emphasis on peace to achieve long-term objectives. The Quranic verse, “Indeed, We have given you a clear conquest” (Surah Al-Fatih, 48 verse 1), is often interpreted as referring to this diplomatic triumph.
The Pact of Umar (637 CE)
The Pact of Umar, attributed to Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644 CE), showcased a cornerstone of Muslim governance over non-Muslim communities. The agreement, reportedly drafted during the conquest of Jerusalem around 637 CE, outlined the rights and responsibilities of non-Muslims under Muslim rule.
The Pact guaranteed protection of life, property, and religious freedom for the People of the Book in exchange for the payment of jizyah, a tax levied on non-Muslims. While the exact terms of the Pact varied across regions and were formalised over time, its essence promoted coexistence and mutual respect. The Pact reflects the Islamic principle of aman (safety), ensuring security for minorities while maintaining social harmony.
The Treaty of Baqt (652 CE)
The Treaty of Baqt will be remembered as the longest-lasting peace treaty in the history of Islamic civilisation and diplomacy. This treaty was concluded between the Muslim governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Abi Sarh, and the king Qalidurut of the Nubian Christian kingdom of Makuria, after the 652 CE Arab conquest of Egypt. The treaty established a mutual non-aggression pact, trade regulations, and an exchange of goods, including Nubian slaves for Egyptian grain and textiles. Notably, the treaty recognised Nubians' sovereignty and religious autonomy while granting Muslims unhindered entry and exit into the Nubian territory. The treaty showcased a remarkable example of Islamic diplomacy that transcended cultural and religious boundaries while underscoring the pragmatic approach of early Muslim rulers in prioritising mutual benefit over conquest in certain contexts.
The Treaty of Jaén (1246 CE): The Great Peace (Al-Silm Al-Akbar)
During the Reconquista, when the Muslim grasp of medieval Spain (Al-Andalus) became slippery, Muslim rulers frequently negotiated peace treaties to manage relations with Christian kingdoms. The Treaty of Jaén (1246 CE), signed between the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada and the Castilian crown, exemplifies this tradition. The treaty, negotiated by Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr, commonly known as Ibn al-Ahmar of Granada, secured a temporary truce, allowing Granada to maintain its independence as the last Muslim stronghold in Iberia.
Such agreements were common in Al-Andalus, where Muslim rulers balanced military defence with diplomacy to preserve their cultural and political presence. These treaties often included tribute payments, trade concessions, or territorial agreements, reflecting the adaptability of Muslim leaders in navigating complex geopolitical realities. The legacy of Al-Andalus, with its flourishing intellectual and cultural achievements, owes much to these diplomatic efforts, which enabled periods of coexistence and exchange between Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
The Treaty of Carlowitz (1699 CE): The Ottoman Diplomacy
The Treaty of Carlowitz, signed on January 26, 1699, was a peace settlement that ended 16 years of hostilities (1683–1699) between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (Austria, Poland, Venice, and Russia). While prioritising greater convictions of securing lives and properties over the expansionist theories of the Western powers, the treaty maintained one of the empire's cardinal legacies.
Before this, the Ottoman Empire negotiated peace pacts to sustain and solidify its hegemony. The Ottomans signed treaties with European powers, such as the 1536 Franco-Ottoman alliance with France, to secure strategic advantages in the Mediterranean and beyond.
Ottoman diplomacy extended to peace treaties with neighbouring powers, including the Safavid Empire and European states. For instance, the Treaty of Amasya (1555 CE) with the Safavids ended decades of conflict over territorial disputes in the Middle East, established clear boundaries and a period of relative stability. These treaties highlight the Ottoman Empire’s sophisticated diplomatic apparatus, which blended Islamic principles with realpolitik to manage a vast, multi-ethnic empire.
The Treaty of Marrakesh (1786 CE)
The Treaty of Marrakesh was a bilateral agreement that established diplomatic and commercial relations between the United States and Morocco. The treaty was signed in Marrakesh in 1786 CE and propelled the nation into the international arena. Morocco, an African Muslim nation, initiated what, as of 2025, remains the longest unbroken diplomatic relationship in U.S. history, showcasing the visionary and impeccable character of Muslim leaders.
Through this singular act of prioritising the development of international trade, Muhammad bin Abdallah, Morocco's sultan, transformed politics, the economy, and society, thereby retooling 30 years of instability, turmoil, and internal strife that had characterised the previous administration.
Conclusion
Reflecting on these treaties from Islamic history, Muslim rulers are obliged to draw lessons from past agreements to shape a meaningful and secure future for Muslim communities. On one side, the relevance of the concept of Jihad is sacrosanct. History, as often said, is the best teacher. The successes and shortcomings of various treaties, along with the circumstances that gave rise to them, offer valuable insights. As the world continues to confront persistent conflict, the legacy of these treaties presents timeless lessons in negotiation, patience, and the pursuit of harmony. We beseech Allah to guide the leaders of Muslim nations to the path of wisdom and righteousness.
*The views expressed in this content are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the editorial policy of İdrakpost.
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